The Political Orientation Behind the Concept of Orthodoxy
When Luo Guanzhong wrote "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," he was in the transitional period from the Yuan to the Ming dynasty—a historical juncture marked by regime change and political chaos. It was in this atmosphere of "chaos" that he used the tripartite division of the Three Kingdoms to depict a cyclical picture of "governance and disorder, rise and fall." The central theme of "respecting Liu and belittling Cao" is not only a literary inclination but also reflects the author's orthodox thoughts.
Liu Bei, as a member of the Han royal family, is praised by the author for his "benevolence" despite being less capable than Cao Cao. Although historically Liu Bei was not the ideal wise ruler, in "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," he becomes a symbol of the "orthodoxy of the Han dynasty." This sense of orthodoxy resonates with the early Ming dynasty's strong advocacy for the "revival of the Han dynasty."
Within this framework, Luo Guanzhong does not unconditionally praise the victors of political schemes. He portrays Cao Cao as a cunning hero who "holds the emperor to command the lords," and although he is adept at governance and employs talent wisely, his "non-orthodox" identity ultimately undermines his moral standing. Thus, it can be seen that through the arrangement of the fates of the characters in the Three Kingdoms, Luo Guanzhong maintains the Confucian concept of "proper names" while also expressing a warning about the imbalance of "heavenly mandate" and "orthodoxy" in the changing tides of history.
The Aesthetic Embodiment of Moral Ideals
The core tension of "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" lies not only in military strategies but also in value conflicts. Righteousness and profit, public and private, loyalty and deceit are intricately intertwined in the complex character portrayals. Luo Guanzhong is clearly not satisfied with merely recording historical events; he attempts to construct an ideal character map through literary means.
Guan Yu is a concrete embodiment of this ideal. His "righteousness is as heavy as a mountain" and "swears to die rather than surrender," making him the incarnation of loyalty and righteousness. In many chapters, Luo Guanzhong spares no effort in describing Guan Yu, even endowing him with a halo that transcends reality, such as "flooding the seven armies" and "attending a meeting with a single sword." This clearly goes beyond historical facts and serves the author's moral construction.
Similarly, Zhuge Liang's "dedicating himself to the utmost, dying only after his efforts" also carries the scholar's yearning for the ideal of a loyal minister. Through the portrayal of Zhuge Liang, Luo Guanzhong showcases the ideal political relationship of "aiding the ruler with virtue." Although this relationship is difficult to fully realize in reality, it is presented in a literary manner in the novel, expressing the author's idealistic sentiments while also creating a strong aesthetic impact.
Concerns and Critiques in the Narrative of Political Schemes
Although Luo Guanzhong generally upholds "righteousness," he does not deny the practical role of political schemes. "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" contains numerous descriptions of strategies, layouts, and military tactics, and even praises strategies that "defeat the strong with deceit." The episodes of Zhuge Liang's "empty city ruse," Cao Cao's "suspicion of troops," and Zhou Yu's "fire attack on Chibi" have all become timeless symbols of wisdom.
However, beneath the praise, Luo Guanzhong does not hide his concerns. For example, the depiction of the "counter-espionage strategy," from Lü Bu and Diao Chan to Cao Cao mistakenly killing Yang Xiu, showcases the brilliance of strategy but also reveals the distortion of human nature and the decline of morality in the power struggle. Zhuge Liang overcomes Sima Yi with wisdom but ultimately cannot reverse the decline of Shu Han; Cao Cao is a master of warfare but cannot prevent the downfall of his descendants. It seems that in these arranged endings, Luo Guanzhong is questioning: can political schemes lead to victory for a time, but can they sustain long-term success?
Therefore, while presenting political schemes, he also implicitly critiques: when politics devolves into a game of power, the fate of the nation will likewise decline. It is evident that "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" does not merely extol wisdom and strategy but uses them as a springboard for deeper reflections on political ethics and the legitimacy of governance.
Heroes in Chaotic Times and the Logic of "Heavenly Mandate"
Luo Guanzhong's portrayal of "heroes in chaotic times" clearly reflects a strong aesthetic preference: they are not bound by convention and can expand territories and achieve great deeds in extreme environments. However, none of these heroes can ultimately end the chaos; instead, most meet their demise. This universal tragic ending is not coincidental but is a core aspect of Luo Guanzhong's historical philosophy—the irreversibility of heavenly mandate and the limitations of human effort.
In "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," "heavenly mandate" is not a religious fatalism but an explanatory mechanism for political legitimacy and historical cycles. Liu Bei may have received the "heavenly mandate," but his human resources are insufficient; Cao Cao may be exceptionally talented, but "fate does not belong to Wei"; Zhuge Liang may be wise, yet he is "not of the emperor's mandate." This logic runs throughout the book, making the success or failure of each hero part of a higher historical trajectory.
This view of "heavenly mandate" reflects a historical perspective that integrates Confucian and Daoist elements: on one hand, it upholds Confucian "orthodoxy" and "moral governance," while on the other hand, it absorbs the Daoist worldview of "going with the flow." It can be said that Luo Guanzhong constructs a philosophical stance of "striving yet not attaining, and not attaining yet following heaven" through the chaotic times of the Three Kingdoms.
Writing Real Concerns Through History
From the perspective of the creative background, although "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" is about the Three Kingdoms, it is actually Luo Guanzhong's response to the social chaos at the end of the Yuan dynasty. In this historical context, local warlords, suffering of the people, and scholars having no place to stand led to a near-collapse of social order. Luo Guanzhong uses the Three Kingdoms as a mirror, attempting to awaken a desire for governance and a vigilance against chaos.
He frequently employs the macro logic of "the great trend of the world, after long division must unite, after long unification must divide" in the book, which is an abstract expression of historical laws. This not only reflects the reality of the Three Kingdoms period but also mirrors the actual situation of the transition from the Yuan to the Ming. In other words, "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" is not only a literary work but also a cautionary tale, attempting to remind readers that the cycle of history does not stop at any one era but continues to unfold.
Starting from the Yellow Turban Rebellion and ending with the usurpation of the Han by the descendants of Sima Yi, this cyclical structure suggests that history seems unable to escape the cycle of fate. Through the elaboration of the chaotic times of the Three Kingdoms, Luo Guanzhong implicitly expresses his expectations for the new regime at the beginning of the Ming dynasty—can it end the chaos and achieve "long unification" rather than further "division"?
The Transformation of Historical Perspective Through Literary Techniques
Finally, it is also important to note whether Luo Guanzhong's method of reconstructing history through literature constitutes a form of historical philosophy. After all, "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" is not a purely documentary work but a product of the intertwining of historical facts and fiction, historians and literati.
Luo Guanzhong does not completely adhere to the narrative of "Records of the Three Kingdoms" but instead performs a "romance" based on it—both "performing" the characters' personalities and "justifying" the causal relationships of events. For example, he depicts Zhou Yu as petty and repeatedly suppressed by Zhuge Liang, which is actually to highlight the "wise and upright" Shu Han camp; similarly, he sets Diao Chan as the key figure to sow discord between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu, which, although lacking historical evidence, enhances the satirical meaning of "seducing powerful ministers."
This processing is not mere embellishment but an intentional choice by Luo Guanzhong regarding history. In this reconstruction, he shapes a narrative logic that is emotionally vivid and morally clear, making history not only readable and perceptible but also thought-provoking. This literary reconstruction of history itself forms a "philosophical" narrative strategy: using humanity as a mirror to observe history, and using history as a reference to govern.