The first period of Northern domination lasted from the 2nd century BC to 40 AD. This period ended with the uprising of the Trung Sisters to gain independence from the Eastern Han dynasty. The second period of Northern domination lasted from 43 AD to the mid-6th century. This included the Eastern Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, the Qin dynasty, the Qi dynasty, and the Liang dynasty. The third period of Northern domination lasted from the 7th century to the 10th century, which included the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, and the Southern Han. The fourth period of Northern domination, also known as the Ming period, lasted from 1407 to 1427 when the Ming dynasty invaded Vietnam. History often refers to this as over 1000 years of Northern domination. The Northern domination period, lasting over 1000 years, is a particularly significant phase in Vietnamese history. During this time, our country experienced notable periods such as Han, Eastern Wu, Jin, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han, with continuous foreign rule.
There were only a few brief periods of independence thanks to the uprisings of the Trung Sisters in 40 AD, the uprising of Lady Trieu in the mid-3rd century, the uprising of Ly Bi in the mid-6th century, the uprising of Mai Thuc Loan in the early 8th century, the uprising of Phung Hung in the late 8th century, and the peak being Ngo Quyen in 938 with the victory at Bach Dang. In total, it was over a millennium of oppression. But the miracle is that despite being under foreign rule for so long, the Vietnamese people still retained their language, culture, and national spirit.
Why did we have to endure such a long period of Northern domination for over 1000 years?
At that time, China was a huge war machine, with a population ten times that of Vietnam, a professional army with a good logistics system, granaries, war horses, and main roads. Even though we rose up and had the spirit to achieve initial victories, the Northern invaders were still much stronger. For example, in 40 AD, the Trung Sisters drove out the governor To Dinh, but the Han dynasty sent Ma Vien, a seasoned general, with 200,000 troops. Ma Vien used tactics of burning grasslands, destroying crops, and forcing our people into slavery, leaving us exhausted after three years.
Or in the early 8th century when Mai Thuc Loan, also known as Mai Hac De, gathered 300,000 troops, but the Tang dynasty sent Duong Tu Huc with 150,000 elite troops to besiege and cut off food supplies, extinguishing the uprising. Our troops were skilled in guerrilla warfare, familiar with the mountainous terrain, but lacked long-term logistics, having no granaries or standing army. The Northern courts not only used military force but also employed very cunning psychological warfare tactics, dividing and ruling.
They divided Vietnam into small districts such as Giao Chi, Cuu Chan, and Nhat Nam. Each district was governed by a Han governor, but they were smarter in using Vietnamese people as their henchmen. They imposed heavy taxes, forced the people to work on roads and fortifications, and promised promotions to those who were loyal. As a result, our internal unity was fractured, with some local noble families collaborating with the invaders for their own benefit. In 937, Duong Dinh Nghe expelled the Southern Han, but Kieu Cong Tien, a general under him, killed him to seek glory and invited the Southern Han to return.
Then there was Ngo Quyen, the son-in-law of Duong Dinh Nghe, who defeated the Southern Han army on the Bach Dang River. During the Ming dynasty, they plundered books, took artisans back to the North, but still used Vietnamese nobles as their tax collectors. The Northern courts also used culture as a form of soft power. They brought Chinese characters, Confucianism, rituals, Buddhism, and Taoism to Vietnam. Regarding Buddhism, there are other hypotheses. Initially, it was a tool of governance, but gradually it permeated society, especially among the upper class. Many of the cunning schemes of the Northern courts unfolded in this way.
But the important thing is that during the long period of Northern domination, we did not have a leader of sufficient stature. This was a critical weakness that caused the period of Northern domination to often last long and be unable to end. The uprisings were often led by individual heroes like the Trung Sisters, Lady Trieu, and Ly Bi. They were strong in gathering forces but after victory, could only establish small states that did not last long.
Why?
Because we lacked a sustainable administrative system. The state of Van Xuan under Ly Bi was impressive, but after his death, internal chaos ensued, and the Sui dynasty easily attacked. We also did not have a standing army or a tax system to support the military. The uprisings relied on farmers and local nobles. The forces were often good at guerrilla warfare but could not withstand when the enemy brought large armies. We also lacked a sustainable alliance with local lords or faced power struggles like Kieu Cong Tien betraying Duong Dinh Nghe. It was not until Ngo Quyen with the wooden stake strategy on the Bach Dang River that we could end the period of Northern domination.
Unity and organization are the keys. Our people have been resilient and unyielding from the Trung Sisters, Lady Trieu, Ly Bi, Mai Thuc Loan, and Phung Hung, with uprisings occurring every few decades. The Tang dynasty once lamented that Giao Chi was a fierce land that could not be pacified. But the uprisings often lacked a decisive blow. We won major battles but did not have the strength to completely drive the enemy away because they retreated to the border, regrouped, and returned. We did not have the forces to push back to the North or a strong enough court to withstand for the long term. It was only with Ngo Quyen's victory at Bach Dang that we created a turning point.
But more importantly, why were the Vietnamese not assimilated despite being under foreign rule for over 1000 years?
This is a miracle because many other ethnic groups have gradually lost their language and culture under long-term domination. But the Vietnamese did not. First, we must mention the difficult geography. Since ancient times, the land of Vietnam has been different from the North not only in culture but also in geography. China is a dry, cold, vast northern region suitable for growing millet and wheat. In contrast, Vietnam is hot and humid, with many rivers, rice fields, and dense forests, suitable for growing wet rice.
The Northerners, despite sending troops and officials to Giao Chau and Giao Chi many times, always faced difficulties due to the harsh climate. Historical records note that many times Northern troops died from malaria and disease. This unsuitability of the land made it difficult for them to impose their way of life and customs completely. The mountains, forests, and rivers were also allies of the Vietnamese. The uprisings from the Trung Sisters, Lady Trieu, Mai Thuc Loan, and Phung Hung all relied on the difficult terrain to hold out. In other words, geography served as a natural shield to protect Vietnam.
Additionally, Vietnam has another very special aspect that we often jokingly refer to as "behind the village fence." Unlike the centralized urban model in many countries, ancient Vietnamese society revolved around the village model. Each village was a closed unit, with its own customs, practices, and beliefs. The village communal house was the center of cultural and political life, where the king's decree was often subordinate to village customs. Although Northern officials governed at the district and county levels, the real life of the people was managed by the village. There, the king's decree was subordinate to village customs, and the people engaged in farming, worshiping ancestors, and organizing their own festivals. These rituals were not only cultural activities but also a way to preserve identity and the spirit of the nation through generations.
And speaking of culture, before being colonized, the Vietnamese already had their own beliefs and culture based on wet rice agriculture. The Vietnamese worshipped river gods, mountain gods, the sun, and mother deities. When the Han brought Confucianism and Taoism, the Vietnamese did not resist but also did not accept them outright. We adapted these religions to our own context. Buddhism in Vietnam early on took on a compassionate character close to the farmers. Taoism blended into folk beliefs, becoming a form of worship, fortune-telling, and seeking wealth, rather than being rigid as in China. Confucianism only developed among the ruling class, while farmers still maintained their indigenous rituals. This flexible transformation allowed Vietnamese culture not to be swallowed up but rather to absorb foreign essences to enrich national identity.
And finally, let's talk about the Northerners. The North made many attempts to sinicize, such as establishing districts, introducing Chinese characters into administration, and sending Han migrants to force the Vietnamese to follow Chinese music and rituals, but the results were not as desired. First, the number of Han migrants to the South was not large, mostly concentrated in urban areas or key regions, unable to cover the entire rural area. Second, Vietnamese officials who knew Chinese characters often became leaders of uprisings. And third, rural culture still prevailed. The majority of the population maintained old customs, with little interaction with the urban elite.
Therefore, the process of sinicization was merely a superficial layer of paint; it appeared to be colored by Chinese influence, but the core of the Vietnamese remained intact. The Vietnamese nation has always nurtured the pride of being descendants of dragons and fairies, with ancestors like Hung Kings. This legend is not just a story to tell but also a declaration of difference, affirming that this nation has its own roots that cannot be erased. The Vietnamese under Northern domination, although regarded as Giao Chi or An Nam, knew in their hearts that they were not Han people. Folk songs, proverbs, legends, and folk tales are treasures that preserve the national memory passed down from generation to generation. Therefore, when Ngo Quyen won the victory on the Bach Dang River in 938, the people immediately responded to independence because their national consciousness had never been lost.
After more than 1000 years of Northern domination, Vietnam not only was not assimilated but also grew stronger. We adopted advanced agricultural techniques, state organization models, and Chinese characters, but still retained our own language, beliefs, and customs. Thus, the over 1000 years of Northern domination lasted because China had a strong army, clever divide-and-rule policies, and deeply infiltrated culture, while we lacked unified organization and resources to break free. But it was in that crucible that the Vietnamese nation forged its indomitable identity from the Trung Sisters, Lady Trieu, and Ngo Quyen, with each step being a brick laid in the Vietnamese spirit. Especially, our ability to resist assimilation through language, villages, uprisings, and geography is a testament to the vitality of the nation.